Indus Valley Civilization:

Que. “Archaeological evidence does not give direct access to the possible social and political dimensions of the decline of the Harappan civilization.” What it does indicate very clearly is that the Harappan culture underwent a gradual process of de-urbanization? Comment. [UPSC CSE-2018]

Approach:

(1) Explain briefly the process of de-urbanization.

(2) Mention the archaeological evidence indicates that the Harappan culture underwent a gradual process of de-urbanization.

(3) Mention the theories on decline of Harappan civilisation.

(4) Conclude on balanced footing.

Introduction:

Discovery of Harappan civilization by John Marshal in 1924 pushed back India’s history by more than 2000 years. The term Harappan civilisation refers to the emergence of Urban centers in the Indian sub-continent during the 3rd millennium BC as and when towns and cities came into existence, they represented Harappan civilization. Archaeological evidence shows that Harappan Culture underwent a gradual process of deurbanization. The Mature Harappan phase was followed by a post-urban phase, known as the late Harappan phase.

Archaeological Evidence Indicates that the Harappan Culture Underwent a Gradual Process of De-urbanization:

(1) Jhukar culture: In Sindh, the late Harappan phase is represented by the Jhukar culture at sites such as Jhukar, Chanhudaro, and Amri. The transition from the mature to the late Harappan phase in this region does not show any sudden discontinuity. There were gradual changes in the seals, a decrease in the frequency of cubical weights, and writing came to be confined only to pottery. The evidence of pottery suggests reciprocal contacts between the Jhukar culture of Sindh and the late Harappan culture at Lothal and Rangpur.

(2) Cemetery-H culture: In the Punjab province of Pakistan and the Ghaggar-Hakra valley, the late Harappan phase is represented by the Cemetery-H culture. There is a decline in the number of settlements from 174 in the mature Harappan phase to 50 in the late Harappan phase. In east Punjab, Haryana, and north Rajasthan, the late Harappan settlements were small compared to the mature Harappan ones. In the Ganga-Yamuna doab, compared to the 31 mature Harappan sites, there are 130 late Harappan sites. The settlements were small, houses were generally made of wattle and daub, but the agricultural base was very diverse. In Kutch and Saurashtra, there is a marked increase in the number of settlements in the earlier part of the late Harappan phase, from 18 in the mature Harappan phase to 120 in the early late Harappan phase.

(3) Shifting of settlements: While there was abandonment or severe reduction in population in Sindh and Cholistan, the increase in the number of settlements in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, northern Rajasthan, and Gujarat shows that this was not the case everywhere. In fact, at around the time that people were abandoning Mohenjo-Daro, the people of Rojdi in Saurashtra were expanding and rebuilding their settlement. The data suggests an eastward and southward shift of settlements and people.

(4) Pottery: The evidence from mature and late Harappan sites shows a complex interplay of elements of continuity and change. Compared to mature Harappan pottery, the slip of late Harappan pottery is less bright. The pots tend to be thicker and sturdier. Some of the classic Harappan shapes-e.g, the beaker, goblet, perforated jar, s-shaped jar, and pyriform (pear- shaped) jar-disappear. Other shapes-e.g., jars of different shapes and the dish on-stand-continue Various elements of Harappan urbanism such as the cities, script. seals, specialized crafts, and long-distance trade declined in the late Harappan phase, but did not completely disappear. Graffiti on pottery occurs in Saurashtra and northern Gujarat as well as in the eastern regions. Four potsherds with Harappan letters were found at late Harappan levels at Daimabad.

(5) Contacts with the Persian Gulf: Some circular seals occur at Daimabad and Jhukar, rectangular seals minus motifs were found at Dholavira. A rectangular conch shell seal with the motif of a three-headed animal, similar to that found seals of the Persian Gulf, was found at Bet Dwarka. This suggests that contact with the Persian Gulf continued in the late Harappan phase, at least in the Gujarat region.

(6) Craft activities: The late Harappan phase at Bhagwanpura shows flourishing specialized craft activity, there are 2 clay tablets and 19 sherds with graffiti, which could represent a script In Punjab and Haryana, there are faience ornaments, beads of semi-precious stones, terracotta cart frames, kilns, and fire altars.

(7) Agricultural activities: A notable development in the late Harappan phase was the diversification of agriculture. At Pirak in Balochistan, there was the beginning of double cropping-wheat and barley were being grown as winter crops and rice (with irrigation), millet, and sorghum as summer crops: In the Kachi plain, there were fairly large settlements, growing a variety of crops, supplemented with irrigation. In Gujarat and Maharashtra, various kinds of millets were being grown as summer crops Rice and millets were found at late Harappan levels at Harappa Excavations at Hulas gave evidence of diverse plant remains Grains included rice, barley, dwarf wheat, bread wheat, club wheat, oats, Jowar, and finger millet Pulses included lentil, field pea, grass pea (khesari), kulthi, green gram (moong), and chickpea. Almond and walnut shells were found, and a single carbonized seed of cotton was identified.

Theories on Decline of Harappan Civilisation: Aryan Invasion Theory

(1) Origin of Theory: The idea that the civilization was destroyed by the Aryan invaders was put forward by Ramprasad Chanda in 1926. It was later elaborated by Mortimer Wheeler in 1947.

(i) Evidence of the Theory: This idea was supported by the references in the Rig Veda to various kinds of forts, attacks on walled cities, and the epithet Purandara (destroyer of forts) given to the god Indra. He also identified a place called Hariyupiya in the Rig Veda with Harappa, where Aryan fought the battle. It has been pointed out that in the late phases of occupation at Mohenjodaro there is evidence of a massacre. Human skeletons have been found lying on the streets.

(ii) Problems with Aryan invasion theory: (a) No Archaeological Evidence: The evidence from the Rig Veda is far from conclusive. There are no archaeological records to support this theory. There is, in fact, no evidence of any kind of military assault or conflict at any Harappan site. (b) Raids may by Some Other Bandits: The human bodies lying exposed in the street could have been caused by raids of bandits from surrounding hilly tracks. (c) Inaccurate Date: The provisional date for the decline of the Harappan civilization is believed to be 1800 B.C. The Aryans on the other hand are believed to have arrived here not earlier than a period around 1500 B.C.

(2) Plate Tectonic Theory: According to M R Sahani, Robert L Raikes, G F Dales, the Geological movement in tectonic plates caused the decline of Harappan cities. For instance, there is evidence of rock faulting at a place named Sehwan, 90 miles downstream from Mohenjodaro. This led to creation of a gigantic dam that prevented Indus from flowing towards the sea, turning the area around mohenjo daro into a huge lake.

(3) Shift in River Course: Change in course of rivers starved the people living in nearby villages and cities of water. Harappan sites in Ghaggar-Hakra valley were affected by gradual desiccation.

(4) Decline in Trade: Shereen Ratnagar has argued that the decline in lapis lazuli trade with Mesopotamia was a factor in the decline of Harappan civilization, though this argument is debatable among historians.

(5) Spread of Epidemic: Epidemic of malaria has also caused the death of Harappan people as argued by K.V.R. Kennedy. The site of mohenjodaro has yielded evidence of Malaria.

(6) War like groups: Archaeological excavations carried out in parts of central Asia have revealed that some war like groups had settled in that area in around 2000 BC. Presence of these trade groups adversely affect the safety of land routes of Harappan external trades being practiced with its contemporary foreign civilisation.

(7) Inflow of foreign wealth reduced: Flourishing external trade was the main source of prosperity of Harappan cities because balance of trade was in favour of Harappans. When this inflow was reduced the prosperity of Harappan cities started declining and Urban life became difficult.

(8) Decline of Industrial activities: Decline of Harappan external trade reduced demand of art and craft products being manufactured by Harappans. Harappan industrial activities started declining and the process of decline of this great civilisation gained further momentum.

Conclusion:

The proto-urban early Harappan phase gave rise to the Harappan urban phase. Although archaeological evidence indicates a great deal about this civilization. Its diverse subsistence basis, vibrant craft traditions, and broad trading networks, conclusions concerning many other features such as religion, culture, and governance remain speculative. Within the broad Harappan civilization zone, there was both cultural homogeneity and diversity. The Harappan civilization did not end abruptly. The urban period was followed by the late Harappan era, which was distinguished by the loss of urban features and agricultural diversification.