Topic: Harappan Civilization (Ecological Factors)
Que. Do you agree that ecological factors influenced the flow and ebb of the Harappan Civilization? Comment. (Ancient History, UPSC CSE, 2021)
Approach:
(1) Explain briefly the phases of the Harappan civilization.
(2) Mention the role played by ecological factors in the flow and ebb of the Harappan Civilisation.
(3) Mention some other factors in the flow and ebb of the Harappan Civilisation.
(4) Conclude on balanced footing.
Introduction:
John Marshal’s discovery of the Harappan civilization in 1924 pushed back India’s ancient past by more than 2500 years, elevating India to the same level as Mesopotamia and Egypt. The Harappan culture was actually a long and complicated cultural process that consisted of at least three phases: the formative and proto-urban phase, the mature phase, which was the full fledged urban stage, and the late phase, which was the post-urban decline phase. A variety of elements played varying roles throughout the civilization’s history.
Role Played by Ecological Factors:
In the flow of civilization:
(1) Agricultural Sustainability: The success of the Harappan Civilization was deeply tied to its agricultural practices. The ecological conditions, including the availability of water from rivers and fertile alluvial plains, allowed for the development of sophisticated irrigation systems and sustainable agricultural practices. This, in turn, supported a large population and the growth of urban centers.
(2) Impact of Rainfall: The diversity of Harappan subsistence base was closely associated with the environment. The pollen analysis of Gurdip Singh from 3 salt lakes of Sambhar, Didwana and Lunkaransar suggest the maximum rainfall in the region in 3000 BC which had contributed to the rise of cities like Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi etc. The ample amount of rainfall and sophisticated water conservation system like in Dholavira to store rainwater for irrigation and drinking purposes protected the harappan people from any kind of water scarcity.
(3) Water Management: The Harappans’ mastery over water management was essential for their survival and growth. Ecological factors such as river patterns, monsoon cycles, and water availability influenced their ability to harness water for irrigation, sanitation, and other purposes. Their expertise in creating drainage systems, wells, and reservoirs demonstrated their adaptation to local ecological conditions.
(4) Varied Climate: Different types of crops were grown which suggest the climatic variations and suitability of environment for varied agricultural practices and consequent agricultural surplus.
(5) Environmental stability: It has also contributed to the growth of trade. For instance, the perennial flow of the Indus River led to the growth of riverine trade and Mohenjodaro emerged as one of the prominent urban centre. Harappan people were well aware of the significance of the environment as it can be estimated by their belief in nature worship especially tree worship.
In the ebb of civilization:
(1) Impact of Climate: Around 2000 BC Climate change was witnessed caused by the 4.2 Kiloyear BP Event. Also, Gurdip Singh has suggested a connection in the onset of drier conditions in 1800 BC and decline of harappan cities.
(2) Climate Change and Drought: Changes in climate patterns, including prolonged droughts and shifts in monsoon patterns, are believed to have occurred during the later stages of the Harappan Civilization. These changes could have led to reduced agricultural productivity, water scarcity, and food shortages. Ecological factors such as altered rainfall patterns directly impacted the civilization’s ability to sustain its agricultural practices.
(3) Soil Degradation and Salinization: The overexploitation of natural resources caused decline in soil fertility and increase in soil salinity. This affected the agricultural production and reduction in agricultural surplus led to decline of urban centres.
(4) Lack of Resources: Limited availability of resources in a particular Harappan cultural zone could not support the growing population of people and cattle. Manda in Jammu and Kashmir is a specific case study which was deficient in resources.
(5) Frequent Natural Disaster: Multiple natural disasters have also caused the decline of urban centres. The several layers of silt at Mohenjodaro give evidence of the city being affected by repeated floods.
(6) Rise in Sea Level: The sudden rise in Arabian Sea coastline seriously disrupted the coastal communication and trade of Harappans.
(7) Water Scarcity: The Harappan cities were heavily dependent on the Indus and Saraswati river systems for water supply, agriculture, and trade. Ecological changes that affected river courses, reduced water flow, or altered the availability of water resources would have directly impacted their sustainability. Increase in aridity in the mature to late transition phase was also witnessed. M R Mughal’s study of settlements of the region shows a drastic decrease in the number of sites as rivers dried up.
(8) Disruption of Trade Networks: Ecological changes and resulting food shortages could have disrupted trade networks that were crucial for the Harappan economy. Reduced access to resources from other regions could have further weakened the civilization’s ability to cope with challenges.
(9) Monsoon Theory: Ronojoy Adhikari propounded the Monsoon linked decline theory in 2012. According to him, 2000 BC onwards, the monsoon winds shifted over Gangetic plains, causing desertification of Indus flood plains.
(10) Recent Study: Case study of Dholavira by IIT Kharagpur has revealed that the river on which Dholavira situated had dried up which led to desertification of the surrounding area.
Role Played by Other Factors:
In the flow of civilization:
(1) Geographic Location: The civilization emerged in the fertile plains of the Indus and Saraswati river valleys. These regions provided an abundance of fertile soil, essential for successful agriculture and settlement.
(2) Agricultural Surplus: Mastery of agricultural techniques allowed for the production of surplus food beyond subsistence needs. This surplus supported population growth and the development of specialized roles within society.
(3) Relation with other Civilisations: Cultural contacts with contemporary civilizations increased the mutual dependence of Meluhas and Sumerians. This helped in exchange of goods, animals, crops, metals and different technologies which in the long run helped in growth of cultures.
(4) Politically Stable: The presence of elements of political stability and uniformity in material culture has positively contributed to the growth of civilization as peace is the prerequisite for progress.
(5) Trade Development: The strong network of trade, both internal and external, increased the availability of different kinds of goods in almost every region.
(6) Planned and Uniformed: Well planned layout of Harappan cities paved the way for the first urban civilization of ancient India, fulfilling the Ten Characteristics of cities propounded by V Gorden Childe. Uniformity of script further eased the process of sustenance of harappan civilization.
In the ebb of civilization:
(1) Plate Tectonic Theory: According to M R Sahani, Robert L Raikes, G F Dales, the Geological movement in tectonic plates caused the decline of harappan cities. For instance, there is evidence of rock faulting at a place named Sehwan, 90 miles downstream from Mohenjodaro. This led to creation of a gigantic dam that prevented Indus from flowing towards the sea, turning the area around mohenjodaro into a huge lake.
(2) Shift in River Course: Change in course of rivers starved the people living in nearby villages and cities of water. Harappan sites in Ghaggar-Hakra valley were affected by gradual desiccation.
(3) Decline in Trade: Shereen Ratnagar has argued that the decline in lapis lazuli trade with Mesopotamia was a factor in the decline of harappan civilization, though this argument is debatable among historians.
(4) Spread of Epidemic: Epidemic of malaria has also caused the death of harappan people as argued by K V R Kennedy. The site of mohenjodaro has yielded evidence of Malaria.
(5) War like groups: Archaeological excavations carried out in parts of central Asia have revealed that some war like groups had settled in that area in around 2000 BC. Presence of these trade groups adversely affect the safety of land routes of Harappan external trades being practiced with its contemporary foreign civilisation.
(6) Inflow of foreign wealth reduced: Flourishing external trade was the main source of prosperity of Harappan cities because balance of trade was in favour of Harappans. When this inflow was reduced the prosperity of Harappan cities started declining and Urban life became difficult.
(7) Decline of Industrial activities: Decline of Harappan external trade reduced demand of art and craft products being manufactured by Harappans. Harappan industrial activities started declining and the process of decline of this great civilisation gained further momentum.
Conclusion:
The Harappan civilization was the first urban culture in South Asia. However, the undeciphered script, lack of conclusive archeological evidence and continuous debates and disagreements among historians has prevented the real picture of rise, growth and decline to come to the forefront. But one thing can be said definitely for the majority of the sites that their flow and ebb was gradual in nature.
