Post-Gupta Period:

Que. “Doubtless it was not a free state; it was at any rate a state.” (K.A.N. Sastri). Reflect upon the nature of local self government institutions in the Chola country. [UPSC CSE-2018]

Approach:

(1) Give an overview of the Chola Empire and its local self-government institutions.

(2) Discuss the local self-government institutions in Chola country.

(3) Discuss the relationship between Chola central Administration and local self-government i.e nature of local self-government institutions.

(4) Conclude the answer on democratic as well undemocratic elements of local self- assemblies.

Introduction:

The Cholas as a ruling power rose to eminence in the 9th Century A.D. when Vijayalaya seized Tanjavur from a feudatory chief of the Pallavas called Muttarayas. The reign of Chola is marked by not only territorial consolidation in South India but also the well delineated administrative structure of the empire. The system of village autonomy with assemblies (Nadu, Sabhas, Urs and Nagaram) and their committees (Variyams) developed through the ages and reached its culmination during the Chola rule. According to Dr KA Nilakanta Sastri, these local assemblies were autonomous units under the centralized Chola state. The details of these institutions are found from the Uttaramerur inscription of Parantaka I and Tanjore inscriptions of Rajaraja I.

Local Self-Government Institutions and its Nature in Chola Country:

The village was the primary unit of society and polity in the Chola kingdom. The village administration gradually grew from comprising a simple group of people to the more elaborate and complicated machinery of committees and officials that have been described in the Chola inscriptions of the tenth and eleventh centuries.

(1) Types of Assemblies: From the inscriptions we find reference to at least three types of assemblies which played a regular part in local administration, namely the Ur, the Sabha or the Mahasabha and the Nagaram.

(i) Ur: The Ur was evidently a village assembly of a commoner kind, where land was held by all classes of people who were, therefore, entitled to membership in the local assembly. Larger villages could well have as many as two Urs, if this measure could enable a better, smoother and more convenient administrative functioning. The Ur was open to all tax paying adults of the village, but in effect older members played a more prominent role with some forming a small executive body called the Alunganam, the numerical strength of which was never specified.

(ii) Sabha/Mahasabha: The Sabha was probably an exclusively Brahmin assembly of the Brahmadeya Villages where land belonged to the Brahmins alone. The Sabha had more complex machinery, as it functioned largely through committees called Variyams. Both Alunganam and variyam usually constituted smaller committees of different Sizes from among their members for specialised work. The Mahasabha possessed the propriety rights over communal lands and controlled the private lands within its jurisdiction. It could also raise loans for the village and levy taxes.

(iii) Nagaram: The Nagaram was an assembly of merchants which was functional largely in localities where traders and merchants were in a dominant position.

(2) Mode of election and its term: Members of the executive body and of the other committees of the Ur or the Sabha appear to have been selected by a draw of lots from among those who were eligible. These members had to retire every three years.

(3) Various committees: There were committees for helping in the assessment and collection of land revenue, for maintenance of law and order, justice, etc. One of the important committees was the tank committee which looked after the distribution of water to the fields.

(4) Absolute proprietor of Land: The Chola village assembly was the absolute proprietor of the village lands. When fresh dealings were made, the assembly became proprietor of those newly acquired lands.

(5) Uttaramerur inscription of Prantaka I of 919 and 921 AD: The two Uttaramerur records of Prantaka I of 919 and 921 A.D. contains resolutions passed by the local ‘Mahasabha’ on the constitution of the Variyams or executive committees, the second resolution improving on and superseding the first. It says that people should aspire to have a better and more honest value system.

(i) Required criteria for nomination: According to the regulation of 921 A.D. each of the thirty wards of the village was to nominate for selection of persons possessing the following qualifications:

• Ownership of more than 1/4th ‘Veli’ (about an acre and a half) of land.
• Residence in a house built on one’s own site.
• Age between 35 and 70.
• The knowledge of the ‘Vedic mantra-brahmanas’; in the alternative 1/8th Veli of land and knowledge of one Veda and a Bhasya.

(ii) Disqualification criteria for nomination: According to same inscription following were excluded: 

• Those who had been on any of the committee but had failed to submit the accounts, together with all their specific relations.
• Those who had committed great sins.
• Those who had stolen the property of others etc.

(iii) Various tasks of assemblies: According to same inscription, assemblies had various tasks at hand:

• To collect the land revenue.
• To levy additional taxes for specific purposes like the construction of water tank.
• To settle agrarian disputes over duration of tenure and irrigation rights.
• To maintain recordspertaining to donations and taxes.

(iv) Kudavoloi (palm leaf) system: According to same inscription the candidates were selected via Kudavolai (palm leaf) system:

• Names of qualified candidates were written on palm leaf tickets.
• The tickets were put into a pot and shuffled.
• A young boy was asked to take out as many tickets as the number of positions available.
• The name on the ticket was read out by all the priests.
• The candidate, whose name was read out, was selected

(6) Diverse kinds of assemblies and its working: The larger assemblies kept a small staff of paid officials, but most of the work was done on a voluntary basis in smaller assemblies. It can well be said that the role of the Ur in local administration was fairly similar to that of the Sabha. Diverse kinds of assemblies often coexisted in the same locality. Whenever necessary, a matter could be placed before these different assemblies who would consider the problem amongst themselves and then come to a joint decision of sorts, keeping in mind the interests of the people concerned.

(7) Payment of fines: An inscription from Uttaramerur records the decision of the Sabha about the payment of fines. According to the Sabha’s decision the responsibility for the payment of a fine levied by either the king’s court (rajadvaram), the court of Justice (dharmasanam), or the revenue department (vari) rested squarely on the shoulders of the particular community, group or class to which the person fined belonged.

(8) Various groups: The groups which find special mention are the Brahmins, the Siva Brahmins, the vellalas, and other groups of accountants, merchants and other caste groups also referred to as the jatigal.

(9) Brahmadeya or the agraharavillages: The Brahmadeya or the agrahara villages were those villages that were granted to Brahmins and were almost exclusively inhabited by them. These were much more prosperous because of their exemption from tax.

(10) Devadana villages: Devadana were villages dedicated to the service of a presiding deity. The revenue from these villages was received by the temple Authorities. Under the Cholas the Devadana gained more popularity when the temple came to acquire seminal and unrivalled importance in the life of the villagers. The manner of functioning of these assemblies differed from place to place according to the prevailing local conditions.

Relationship between Chola central administration and local self-government:

(1) King’s Control: Tanjavur inscriptions indicate that Raja Raja I issued orders to the Sabha of Cholamandalam to perform various types of services in the Brihadeshwara temple.

Important brahmadeyas were granted taniyurstatus by the king. Taniyur means ‘separate village’. They were considered independent entities and granted considerable functional autonomy.

(2) Autonomy: Generally, the Chola Emperors respected the decisions of these assemblies. Each assembly functioned autonomouslyin accordance with its own constitution based on custom and usage, and took care of the problems of its members at the local level. In matters affecting people of more than one assembly, decision was taken by mutual deliberation.

The central government through its officers exercised general supervision and had right to intervene in the matter of village under emergency situations. The village assemblies had to take into account the policies of central government.

(3) Collaboration: There were close links between some of the Brahmana Sabhas and Chola court. Uttaramerur inscriptions state that the resolution of the Sabha was made in the presence of an official especially deputed by the King.

(4) Economic Regulations: Local assemblies like Nagaram (assemblies of traders) acted as an agent of monarchy in regulating trade and markets.

The assessment and collection of revenue were undertaken by local assemblies like Ur, Sabha and Nagaram, who passed the revenue onto the centre.

(5) Geographical Position: Those villages which were in the central region of Kaveri River basin was put under direct Royal control, while those regions which were far away and located in drier region were autonomous and contained the self-governing institution.

Conclusion:

It is observed that due to their extended territory over vast South India the Chola emperors were thought to decentralize the administration. It is found that the democratic principles were honoured by Chola rulers. As such, villages and towns were having autonomous administration by elections. It shows that the conception of State development through local development was the idea of Chola rulers. Further, the judicial system was systematic as locally the problems of the people were solved by local governments. The hierarchy-based administration from king to local Sabhas was efficient and as such, there was overall development in the Chola Empire. It is highlighted that the present- day panchayats in India also have considerable impact from the ancient Chola administration.