(i) African Ancestors of Human Beings

The Earth, over 4.6 billion years old, has undergone significant geological changes. In the Quaternary period, which is the fourth stage of Earth’s evolution, two key epochs are identified: the Pleistocene (from 2 million BC to 12,000 BC) and the Holocene (starting around 12,000 BC and continuing to the present). While life on Earth began approximately 3.5 billion years ago, it was initially confined to simple plant and animal forms. The emergence of humans began in the Pre-Pleistocene and Early Pleistocene epochs, with hominid ancestors living in Africa about 6 million years ago. These early humans were not significantly different from apes, which first appeared around 30 million years ago.

A crucial milestone in human evolution was the emergence of Australopithecus, known as the “southern ape.” This species, which lived between 5.5 million and 1.5 million years ago, exhibited both apelike and human-like traits. Australopithecus was bipedal, meaning it walked on two legs, and had a pot-bellied physique with a braincase size of about 400 cubic centimeters. This species represents a significant step towards modern humanity and is considered a proto-human, marking the transition from early hominids to more advanced human ancestors.

Following Australopithecus, Homo habilis emerged around 2 to 1.5 million years ago in eastern and southern Africa. The name “Homo habilis,” meaning “handy man,” reflects this species’ ability to make and use stone tools. Homo habilis had a braincase size ranging from 500 to 700 cubic centimeters and is recognized for its role in developing early tool-making techniques. Stone tools found alongside Homo habilis remains highlight its innovation in using fragmented stones to create sharp-edged tools for various tasks.

The next major advancement came with Homo erectus, who appeared between 1.8 and 1.6 million years ago. Known as “upright man,” Homo erectus had a more robust skull and a larger braincase, ranging from 800 to 1,200 cubic centimeters. This species is notable for its development of more sophisticated tools, such as the hand axe, and its ability to control fire. The use of fire not only provided warmth and protection but also played a role in the species’ migration. Homo erectus spread beyond Africa into regions like China, South Asia, and Southeast Asia, showcasing their ability to adapt to various environments.

Homo sapiens, or “wise man,” emerged as the next significant evolutionary step, with the earliest evidence found around 230,000 to 30,000 years ago. This species, which includes our own kind, displayed a larger braincase, ranging from 1,200 to 1,800 cubic centimeters, and is often associated with the Neanderthals, who were found in Europe, the Near East, and other parts of the Old World. Neanderthals had a robust physique and a narrow forehead but shared many traits with modern humans, indicating a close evolutionary relationship.

Finally, Homo sapiens sapiens, or modern humans, appeared around 115,000 years ago in southern Africa during the Upper Paleolithic era. This species is characterized by a high forehead and slender bones, reflecting advanced cognitive and physical development. Homo sapiens sapiens created diverse stone tools for various functions, and recent research suggests that language may have begun around 50,000 BC, earlier than previously thought. With a braincase size of 1,200 to 2,000 cubic centimeters, modern humans were well-equipped to modify their environment, demonstrating a higher level of adaptability and innovation compared to earlier hominid species.

(ii) The Early Man in India

Fossil evidence of early human evolution in the Indian subcontinent is sparse but significant. Among the earliest finds are skull fossils discovered in the Siwalik Hills, which span India and Pakistan. These fossils, found in the Potwar Plateau in Punjab, include Ramapithecus and Sivapithecus. Although these skulls exhibit some hominid features, they are generally classified as apes. Ramapithecus, specifically a female specimen, and Sivapithecus are estimated to be around 2.2 million years old, based on comparisons with similar fossils found in Greece, which are dated to about 10 million years ago. Despite their importance, there is no evidence that these species spread beyond the Siwalik region, and their evolutionary lineage appears to have ceased within the subcontinent.

A more advanced fossil discovery was made in 1982 in the middle valley of the Narmada River, Madhya Pradesh. The almost complete skull found at Hathnora was initially identified as Homo erectus but is now recognized as archaic Homo sapiens. This find marks a significant step forward in human evolution within India, indicating the presence of more developed hominids in the region.

To date, remains of Homo sapiens have not been discovered elsewhere in India. However, notable finds have been reported from Sri Lanka. The Fa Hien Cave in Sri Lanka has yielded fossils of Homo sapiens sapiens, or anatomically modern humans, dated to approximately 34,000 years ago. These remains represent a hunting and foraging lifestyle characteristic of the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene periods. The cave is considered one of the earliest Upper Paleolithic sites in the Indian subcontinent, with artifacts around 31,000 years old.

The evidence suggests that the earliest modern humans reached the Indian subcontinent via coastal migration routes from Africa around 50,000 years ago, rather than from the north. This coastal migration theory highlights the complex patterns of early human movement and settlement, with initial human populations likely arriving in India through maritime paths rather than overland routes.

(iii) Phases in the Palaeolithic Age

The Palaeolithic Age in India is segmented into three distinct phases based on the evolution of stone tools and climatic changes during this period. These phases are the Lower Palaeolithic, Middle Palaeolithic, and Upper Palaeolithic, each reflecting different stages of human development and adaptation. The timeframes for these phases are approximately 600,000 to 150,000 BC for the Lower Palaeolithic, 150,000 to 35,000 BC for the Middle Palaeolithic, and 35,000 to 10,000 BC for the Upper Palaeolithic. Notably, evidence from the Deccan Plateau shows that tools from both the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic periods coexisted between 35,000 and 15,000 BC.

The Lower Palaeolithic, or Early Old Stone Age, spans a significant portion of the ice age. While the era may have started in Africa around two million years ago, in India, it dates back no earlier than 600,000 years. The site at Bori in Maharashtra is one of the earliest known Lower Palaeolithic locations in India. Tools from this period include hand axes, cleavers, and choppers, which were used for tasks such as chopping, digging, and skinning. These tools bear resemblance to those found in Western Asia, Europe, and Africa. Early sites are also located in the river valleys of the Son or Sohan in Punjab, Kashmir, and the Thar Desert, as well as in the Belan Valley in Uttar Pradesh and Didwana in Rajasthan. The findings at Chirki-Nevasa in Maharashtra, which include around 2,000 tools, and in Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh, reflect a wide distribution of Lower Palaeolithic artifacts. The rock shelters at Bhimbetka near Bhopal likely served as seasonal camps. During this time, people were primarily foragers, hunting small game and consuming fish and birds. This period is associated with early Homo sapiens.

The Middle Palaeolithic period saw advancements in tool-making techniques, characterized by the use of flakes or small stone pieces. The principal tools of this era included blades, points, borers, and scrapers, all crafted from these flakes. The geographical distribution of Middle Palaeolithic sites largely overlaps with those of the Lower Palaeolithic period. Notable sites include various locations along the river Narmada and south of the Tungabhadra River. The Belan Valley, located at the foothills of the Vindhyas, is rich in both stone tools and animal fossils, including cattle and deer, indicating a continued use of tools from the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic periods.

The Upper Palaeolithic phase is marked by a significant increase in the number of sites, with 566 identified across India. This phase corresponds with the end of the ice age and the onset of a warmer climate, resulting in less humid conditions and the spread of grasslands with fewer trees. The Upper Palaeolithic era saw the emergence of new flint industries and the development of tools such as blades and burins, reflecting the presence of anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens sapiens). These tools have been discovered in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, central Madhya Pradesh, southern Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, and surrounding regions.

Caves and rock shelters, which served as living spaces during this period, have been found at Bhimbetka, about 45 kilometers south of Bhopal. These shelters are significant for understanding human adaptation and settlement patterns. Additionally, Upper Palaeolithic assemblages, characterized by large flakes, blades, burins, and scrapers, have been unearthed in the Gujarat sand dunes, indicating a broad geographical distribution of these tools.

The Upper Palaeolithic phase represents a culmination of technological advancement and adaptation to changing environmental conditions. The tools from this period show a high level of craftsmanship and sophistication compared to earlier periods. This era is crucial for understanding the development of early human societies and their interaction with their environment.

In summary, the Palaeolithic Age in India reflects a progressive development in stone tool technology and human adaptation to climatic changes. Each phase—from the Lower Palaeolithic with its basic tools and early foragers, through the Middle Palaeolithic with more advanced tools, to the Upper Palaeolithic with sophisticated craftsmanship and modern humans—provides insight into the evolutionary and cultural transformations of early human societies in the subcontinent.

(iv) The Mesolithic Age : Hunters and Herders

The end of the Upper Palaeolithic period around 10,000 BC marked the conclusion of the ice age, known as the Pleistocene epoch, which had lasted from roughly two million years ago until 12,000 BC. As the ice age ended, the global climate warmed and became more humid, leading to significant changes in the environment. The transition from the icy conditions of the Pleistocene to a warmer, rainier climate brought about shifts in both fauna and flora. This new climate enabled the growth of dense vegetation and forests, which provided new opportunities for human populations. With the end of the ice age, climatic stability was established, and this new environment set the stage for the emergence of the Mesolithic Age.

The Mesolithic Age, beginning around 9000 BC, represents a transitional phase between the Palaeolithic and the Neolithic periods. This era, often referred to as the Middle Stone Age, reflects the gradual shift in human subsistence and technological practices. The Mesolithic people continued many practices from the Palaeolithic era, such as hunting, fishing, and food gathering. However, they began to incorporate new elements into their way of life, particularly the domestication of animals. This period marks a significant step toward the more settled agricultural practices that would define the Neolithic Age.

One of the most notable features of the Mesolithic Age is the development of microliths—tiny, specialized tools. These tools were an advancement over the larger implements of the Palaeolithic period and were used in various ways, including as components of composite tools and weapons. Mesolithic sites are found in various parts of India, including Rajasthan, southern Uttar Pradesh, central and eastern India, and south of the Krishna River. These sites offer valuable insights into the lives of Mesolithic people, showcasing their adaptation to the changing environment.

Bagor in Rajasthan is one of the most extensively studied Mesolithic sites. It features a distinctive microlithic industry and provides evidence of a subsistence strategy based on both hunting and pastoralism. The site was occupied for approximately 5,000 years, starting from the fifth millennium BC. This long duration of occupation indicates a stable and adaptive human presence in the region during the Mesolithic period. Similarly, Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh, alongside Bagor, offers early evidence of animal domestication in the Indian subcontinent, dating back to around 5000 BC.

In addition to evidence of animal domestication, there is also early evidence of plant cultivation from the Mesolithic period. In Rajasthan, studies of the deposits in Sambhar Lake, a former salt lake, suggest that plant cultivation began around 7000-6000 BC. This shift towards agriculture indicates a gradual transition from purely foraging societies to those that began to engage in more deliberate food production practices.

The Mesolithic Age, with its characteristic microlithic tools and advancements in subsistence strategies, served as a crucial bridge between the hunter-gatherer societies of the Palaeolithic period and the more complex agricultural societies of the Neolithic Age. The changes in climate, technology, and subsistence practices during this period laid the groundwork for the development of settled farming communities.

In summary, the Mesolithic Age was a period of significant transition marked by the adaptation to a new climate, the development of advanced stone tools, and the beginnings of animal domestication and plant cultivation. These changes represent an important step in human evolution, bridging the gap between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic periods and setting the stage for the emergence of complex agricultural societies. The archaeological evidence from sites like Bagor and Adamgarh highlights the dynamic nature of Mesolithic cultures and their role in the broader narrative of human history.

(v) Art in the Old Stone Age

During the Old Stone Age, specifically the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods, early humans engaged in artistic practices that offer valuable insights into their lives and beliefs. One of the most significant sites of prehistoric art is Bhimbetka, located in the Vindhyan range of Madhya Pradesh, India, about 45 kilometers south of Bhopal. This site features over 500 painted rock shelters spread across a 10 square kilometer area. The rock art at Bhimbetka spans from the Upper Palaeolithic to the Mesolithic period, and some paintings even date to more recent times. The majority of these artworks belong to the Mesolithic era, depicting a range of subjects including birds, animals, and human figures.

The paintings at Bhimbetka primarily illustrate animals and birds, many of which were hunted by the people of the time. This focus on fauna reflects the subsistence practices of the period, centered around hunting and gathering. Notably, early paintings do not include perching birds that feed on grains, indicating that the art was created during a time when the primary concerns of the people were related to hunting rather than agriculture. This artistic depiction aligns with the economy and lifestyle of the period, highlighting the importance of wildlife in their daily lives.

The motivations behind the Upper Palaeolithic art remain a subject of debate. Some theories suggest that these early artworks were created purely for artistic expression, which would imply a level of sophistication not typically associated with such early stages of human history. Another theory proposes that art served as a ritualistic practice aimed at overcoming social conflicts, although evidence for complex social structures in the Upper Palaeolithic era is limited. More plausibly, the art may have had a functional role in hunting practices, with the depiction of animals serving to symbolize or ensure control over these creatures as a means of securing food.

In comparison, art in the Harappan Civilization, which followed the Old Stone Age, shows a shift in focus. While animals were still depicted on Harappan seals, the society had transitioned to a largely agrarian lifestyle. This change reflects a shift from the ritualistic and practical aspects of early Palaeolithic art to more symbolic and conventional representations in the Harappan period. The continuity of animal depictions highlights the persistent significance of animals in human culture, even as societal practices evolved.

(vi) Earliest Human Organization

In early human societies, the social organization is not entirely clear, but evidence suggests that they lived in small, flexible groups known as bands. These bands, typically consisting of around 25 individuals, were primarily formed for hunting and gathering. Members of these bands would collaborate to hunt and gather food, sharing the resources equally within the group. This system promoted cooperation and ensured survival in a challenging environment.

As humans evolved, these bands could form alliances with other bands for mutual support, potentially expanding their collective size to about 500 individuals. Such alliances might have been formalized through rituals, which helped maintain social cohesion and cooperation among larger groups. Over time, these alliances and interactions led to the development of more structured social groups.

By the Upper Palaeolithic phase, the formation of bands and alliances was likely facilitated by the emergence of language, which played a crucial role in communication and coordination among people. This development allowed for more complex social interactions and laid the groundwork for the transition to more organized and exogamous clans during the Neolithic period, where members married outside their groups to form broader social networks.