Que. Delineate the state of agriculture during the Sultanate period.
सल्तनत काल में कृषि की अवस्था का चित्रण कीजिए।
Structure of the Answer
(i) Introduction: Introduce the “importance of agriculture” during the Sultanate period and its role in economic and social development.
(ii) Main Body: Discuss key aspects of agriculture, including land systems, crop production, irrigation technology, taxation, and the role of peasants.
(iii) Conclusion: Conclude by highlighting the “significance of agricultural advancements” and their long-term impact on the Indian economy and society.
Introduction
Agriculture was the backbone of the economy during the “Sultanate period,” forming the primary source of state revenue and peasant livelihood. The state introduced reforms in land management, irrigation, and taxation, deeply influencing the agrarian economy.
Land Revenue System and Agrarian Relations
(i) State Ownership of Land: The “Sultanate” claimed ownership over all lands, introducing the “Iqta” system, where lands were assigned to military officers (Iqtadars) in lieu of salary, centralizing control.
(ii) Measurement Systems: Land was categorized and measured using systems like “Bigha” and “Biswa.” Tax assessments were based on crop yields and land fertility, ensuring precise revenue collection.
(iii) Role of Iqtadars: “Iqtadars” acted as intermediaries between the state and peasantry. They collected taxes and managed land, contributing to efficient agrarian administration but also increasing peasant burdens.
(iv) Khud-Kashta and Pahi-Kashta Peasants: “Khud-Kashta” were resident peasants owning lands, while “Pahi-Kashta” migrated seasonally for work. This division created a dynamic labor market in the agricultural sector.
(v) Fragmentation of Landholdings: The division of land into smaller units over generations led to “fragmentation” and reduced productivity. This weakened peasant capacity for sustenance, leading to socioeconomic struggles.
Agricultural Technology and Irrigation
(i) Technological Advancements: Innovations like the “Persian wheel” improved water access, making irrigation more efficient. This technology spread widely in the northern plains, increasing agricultural yields.
(ii) Canal Irrigation: The Sultans introduced “canal irrigation” in some regions, promoting intensive farming. It mitigated the uncertainty of monsoons and expanded cultivable land, boosting the agrarian economy.
(iii) Rain-fed Agriculture: Despite advancements, “rain-fed farming” remained prevalent in large parts of North India. Peasants relied on monsoons, making them vulnerable to droughts and famines.
(iv) Influence of Steppe Techniques: Turkish rulers brought agricultural techniques from Central Asia, such as improved “crop rotation” methods and better soil preparation practices, which enhanced productivity.
(v) Impact on Food Security: Technological improvements in agriculture contributed to enhanced “food security” and surplus production, supporting both rural subsistence and urban demands, fueling urbanization.
Crop Diversity and Agricultural Output
(i) Diversity in Crops: Various crops like “wheat, rice, barley, and pulses” were cultivated. Regions like the “Doab” became critical for food grain production, contributing to the urban food supply.
(ii) Introduction of Cash Crops: The Sultanate encouraged the growth of “cash crops” like cotton and sugarcane. These crops contributed to the economy through trade, with textiles and sugar becoming vital exports.
(iii) Agricultural Surplus for Trade: Surplus production in agricultural hubs fed into growing “urban centers.” The connection between rural agricultural output and urban trade fostered greater economic growth and market expansion.
(iv) New Crops and Farming Methods: New crops such as “millets” and “fruits” were introduced from Central Asia, diversifying Indian agriculture. These crops adapted well to Indian soil and helped increase food production.
(v) Livestock and Agriculture: “Animal husbandry” was integral to the agricultural system. Cattle and horses were used for plowing, transportation, and irrigation, directly supporting the agrarian economy.
Taxation and the Role of Peasants
(i) Heavy Taxation on Peasants: Peasants faced heavy taxation, with “Kharaj” (land tax) amounting to one-third to half of their produce. The burden led to hardship among small cultivators, often resulting in impoverishment.
(ii) Nature of Revenue Collection: Taxes were collected in kind or cash. “Iqtadars” oversaw this process, ensuring the state’s control over agrarian resources, but often oppressing peasants by increasing the tax burden.
(iii) Role of Agricultural Laborers: The “peasantry” was the backbone of the economy, laboring to produce food for both local sustenance and trade. Their efforts sustained the state’s economy through agricultural output and tax revenue.
(iv) Peasant Resistance and Distress: Heavy taxes and exploitation sometimes led to “peasant rebellions.” Many peasants faced severe distress, and although the state provided some relief during famines, it remained largely oppressive.
(v) State Support and Incentives: In certain cases, the state offered “support” through reduced taxes during famines or poor harvests. However, this relief was often inadequate, leaving peasants in a vulnerable position.
Conclusion
The “agricultural practices” during the Sultanate period laid the foundation for future economic growth. With advancements in technology, irrigation, and crop diversification, the agrarian economy supported urbanization, yet peasants bore a heavy tax burden that shaped the socio-political dynamics of the time.
