Earliest Rural Settlements in Baluchistan

The Neolithic age, beginning around 9000 BC in the global context, saw its earliest manifestation in the Indian subcontinent with the settlement of Mehrgarh in Baluchistan, present-day Pakistan. Situated on the Bolan River in the fertile Kochi plain, Mehrgarh stands as one of the largest known Neolithic settlements between the Indus and the Mediterranean. This site, dating back to around 7000 BC, marks a significant development in early agricultural society. Although the settlement experienced disruptions due to flooding around 5500 BC, it resumed agricultural activities by 5000 BC using both stone and bone tools.

The inhabitants of Mehrgarh were among the first to cultivate cereals, including wheat and barley, and to domesticate animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats. Initially, goat herding was more prevalent, but over time, cattle became the primary livestock. This shift likely supported agricultural expansion. The Neolithic people of Mehrgarh constructed granaries from mud bricks to store surplus cereals, reflecting an organized approach to agriculture and storage.

By 4500-3500 BC, there was notable progress in agriculture and pottery. The advent of pottery, initially absent before 5000 BC, included the use of the potter’s wheel and the production of painted pots. The expansion of agricultural practices from Mehrgarh into the Indus plain facilitated the growth of the Harappan culture. Additionally, archaeological findings from the dried Hakra Basin reveal forty-seven Later Neolithic settlements, further emphasizing the spread of Neolithic innovations.

In contrast to Baluchistan, Neolithic sites in India are generally later in date, with southern and eastern India showing settlements as recent as 1000 BC. The Neolithic people in India used polished stone tools extensively, including various types of stone axes. These tools, used for diverse purposes, are classified into three regional styles based on their design: rectangular axes with curved edges in the north-west, polished stone axes with rectangular butts in the north-east, and oval-sided axes with pointed butts in the south. These tools reflect regional variations in Neolithic technology and adaptation.

Use of Bone Tools in the Sites of Burzahom and Chirand

The use of bone tools in ancient settlements provides valuable insight into Neolithic cultures. In the north-west of India, Burzahom, located near Srinagar in Kashmir, stands out for its distinctive Neolithic characteristics. The site, named after the birch trees in the area, features dwelling pits along a lakeside, indicating a lifestyle centered around hunting, fishing, and possibly early agriculture. Burzahom is notable for its variety of tools, including both stone and bone implements. The people there utilized polished stone tools and a significant number of bone tools, underscoring their advanced craftsmanship. Additionally, the practice of burying domestic dogs with their owners, observed at Burzahom, is unique among Indian Neolithic cultures, suggesting a special relationship between humans and animals in this region.

Chirand, located 40 km west of Patna, provides another important case of bone tool usage. The settlement in Chirand, situated in a fertile area with significant rainfall, was marked by the use of antler-based tools rather than stone. The site, characterized by its location at the confluence of major rivers, shows a marked scarcity of stone tools. This highlights the adaptation of Chirand’s inhabitants to their environment and the availability of resources. The bones found at Chirand date to around 2000 BC, placing the site in the late Neolithic phase.

Comparing these sites, we see that both Burzahom and Chirand were influenced by their geographical settings and available resources. Burzahom, with its lakeside location, shows a diverse use of both stone and bone tools, while Chirand’s riverine environment led to a predominance of bone tools. These differences illustrate the varying adaptations of Neolithic cultures to their respective environments.

In the broader context of Neolithic settlements, Burzahom and Chirand reflect regional variations in tool usage and cultural practices. Burzahom’s north-western group contrasts with the north-eastern settlements, such as Chirand, where the use of bone tools is more pronounced due to the scarcity of stone. This regional distinction highlights the adaptability and resourcefulness of Neolithic societies in different parts of India.

Neolithic Settlements in South India

In South India, Neolithic settlements thrived from around 2400 to 1000 BC, showcasing a distinctive adaptation to the region’s geographical features. These settlements were primarily located on granite hills or plateaus near river banks, where the availability of stone and fertile land facilitated their development. The people of South India utilized stone axes and blades, and their advanced agricultural practices are evident from their use of stone querns for grinding corn. The presence of fire-baked earthen figurines indicates the importance of cattle, alongside sheep and goats, in their economy.

Among the significant Neolithic sites in South India are Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur, Kodekal, Sanganakallu, Piklihal, and Takkalakota in Karnataka, and Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu. These sites reflect the widespread nature of Neolithic culture in the region, with over 850 settlements documented across Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu. Each site reveals insights into the lifestyle and technological advancements of the Neolithic people, including their agricultural practices and tool usage.

Piklihal, in particular, provides a detailed view of Neolithic life in South India. The inhabitants of Piklihal were primarily cattle-herders who also domesticated sheep and goats. They established seasonal camps surrounded by cowpens made from posts and stakes, which were used to collect and manage dung. When it was time to relocate, they would set fire to the campsite, clearing the area for the next season. This practice, along with the discovery of ash mounds and habitation sites, illustrates their mobility and the systematic approach to managing their resources.

Overall, the Neolithic settlements in South India highlight the region’s rich cultural and technological development. The adaptation to local resources, such as stone and fertile land, along with the advanced agricultural and pastoral practices, underscores the sophistication of these early communities.

Farming and Cereals

The Neolithic period marked a significant transformation in human societies with the advent of farming and the cultivation of cereals. The early Neolithic farmers utilized stone hoes and digging sticks, equipped with ring stones weighing between one to half a kilogram to aid in breaking the ground. These early agriculturalists also employed polished stone tools and microlith blades to facilitate their farming practices. Their settlements consisted of circular or rectangular houses made from mud and reed, reflecting a settled lifestyle and communal ownership of property.

In this period, Neolithic people cultivated various crops, including ragi, horse gram (kulathi), and rice. Notably, the inhabitants of Mehrgarh, a prominent Neolithic site, demonstrated advanced agricultural practices by growing wheat and barley and residing in mud-brick houses. This advancement in farming practices marked a significant shift from the hunter-gatherer societies of the earlier Stone Age to more complex agrarian communities.

The Neolithic era also saw the emergence of pottery, essential for storing, cooking, and consuming food. Initially, pottery was handmade, but later, the use of foot wheels allowed for more refined and uniform pot-making. The introduction of the potter’s wheel in Baluchistan, which likely spread from Western Asia, led to the development of various pottery styles, including black-burnished ware, grey ware, and mat-impressed ware. This technological advancement in pottery facilitated better food storage and preparation, further supporting settled agricultural communities.

Despite these advancements, Neolithic tools and settlements were not uniformly distributed across the subcontinent. While areas such as Orissa and the Chhotanagpur hills exhibit evidence of Neolithic tools like celts, axes, and adzes, regions in Madhya Pradesh and the upper Deccan show fewer traces of Neolithic activity. This scarcity is attributed to the lack of suitable stone types for grinding and polishing in these areas.

Progress in and Limitation of the Neolithic Phase

The Neolithic period, spanning from around 9000 to 3000 BC, was a time of significant technological advancement, especially in Western Asia. During this era, people made considerable strides in agriculture, weaving, pottery, and construction. However, this progress arrived later in the Indian subcontinent, starting around the seventh millennium BC. The Neolithic people in India began cultivating essential crops like wheat and barley and established the first villages. This transition from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to settled agricultural communities marked a profound shift in human subsistence and social organization.

One of the key innovations of the Neolithic age was the development of stone celts, which were edged and pointed tools used primarily for tilling and sowing. These tools revolutionized agriculture by enabling more effective land preparation and planting. The use of celts allowed Neolithic communities to engage in systematic farming and cattle husbandry, which provided a more stable and reliable food source compared to hunting and gathering. This transition to agriculture and settled living laid the groundwork for the development of early civilizations.

Despite these advancements, the Neolithic phase had significant limitations. The reliance on stone tools constrained the expansion of settlements. People were largely confined to hilly regions, rock shelters, and river valleys due to the inadequacies of stone technology. This geographical limitation restricted the growth and spread of Neolithic communities. Additionally, despite their innovations, Neolithic people could produce only enough food to meet their immediate needs, with little surplus. This limitation in food production prevented the development of larger, more complex societies and hindered technological and cultural advancements.

Overall, while the Neolithic period marked a critical turning point in human development with advancements in agriculture and tool-making, the reliance on stone tools and limited food production capabilities posed significant constraints on societal growth and expansion.